Loggerhead Sea Turtles: On the Brink?
“[F]ull of tortoises, as was all the sea about, insomuch as that they looked like little rocks…” These were the words Columbus used to describe the Cayman Islands when he visited them in 1503 (Witherington, 125). Apparently, the Caribbean was swimming with sea turtles at that time. It’s ironic, then, that five hundred years later, almost all seven surviving species of sea turtle are endangered. Once a thriving and a plentiful food source in North and South America (Perrine, 88), this species is nearing extinction due to commercial fishing and human destruction of the beaches. Most sources on this subject seem concerned with how humans affect sea turtles, but sea turtles fill a surprising number of roles in both the environment and human society. While sometimes controversial, the methods proposed to protect sea turtles might help halt the decline of these ancient creatures and make them once again a valuable commodity to the world economy. Not only should sea turtles be protected because of the many ecological and economical niches they fill, but there are many simple and
undisruptive strategies that average citizens can implement to protect them.
Many people may wonder why sea turtles should be saved at all. They are a strange and little-understood species, and seem to have no bearing on the environment. Furthermore, they are a nuisance to humans, preventing beach development and getting caught in the nets of shrimp fishers. The economy, not to mention the oceans, would be better off without them, right? Wrong. Sea turtles perform many functions in their marine environment, and fill countless niches. One of their best-documented behaviors, nesting, is vital to replenishing nutrients on the beaches. During nesting season, sea turtle mothers crawl up onto shore to lay their eggs in the warm beach. They then bury them deep in the sand, leaving the eggs to hatch in their own time. The debris left behind after a hatching, both broken eggshells and unfertilized eggs, helps replenish the beaches with many important nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorous. These nutrients then feed the beach vegetation, continuing to cycle these chemicals through the ocean-beach ecosystem (Witherington, 58). This role
is most striking when it comes to the arribadas, a nesting phenomenon unique to the olive ridely sea turtle. This species nests in herds, hundreds at a time, primarily on beaches in South America such as Playa Ostional in Costa Rica. These mass-nestings mean that many of the first eggs laid are destined to get uprooted and crushed by the many mothers vying for space on the crowded beach. This is not the tragedy it would seem, however, as the crushed eggs are then reabsorbed into the beach, leaving it ripe with nutrients (Witherington, 57).
The Sea Turtle Conservancy, the organization founded by sea turtle worker legend Archie Carr, reports another role sea turtles fill in their environment. Sea turtles are one of the main consumers of sea grass, a plant that covers the ocean floor in masses and provides a home for countless species. Not only does grazing from sea turtles keep the grass healthy and make it grow back stronger, but by eating the grass, the turtles also free up the nutrients for use in other parts of the marine environment (Perrine, 87). From eating sea grass, to laying eggs on the beaches, sea turtles keep nutrients cycling through all levels of the ocean’s ecosystems.
Even without fully understanding the impact of sea turtle species on their marine environment, the sheer number of turtles estimated to
have once inhabited the oceans of North and South America, and the proportionally few surviving today, is cause for concern. According to ecologist Jeremy Jackson, as many as 660 million green sea turtles lived in the Caribbean in the past. As the quote from Columbus shows, sea turtles were once a thriving species in New World waters, and their importance to the marine ecosystem was comparable to the wildebeest populations in east Africa (Perrine, 87).
It’s clear that sea turtles fill an ecological niche, but what about their importance to human society and culture? Writer and researcher James R. Spotlia has speculated, like many sea turtle workers, that the sea turtles had a profound effect on the Mayan civilization. They hunted them for their shells, which they used as bowls and shields. Beyond economic concerns, however, the Mayans revered the sea turtles and replicated their likeness in art, sculpture, and hieroglyphs (67). Could the animals that made such a lasting impression in
the past be important enough to save for the future? Looking to the present, we can see through the work of the hueveros—egg hunters—in Costa Rica that sea turtle eggs are still important to human culture. They have long been seen as a source of food and medicine, not to mention a valuable trade commodity, and can be used for leather products, decorations, even oils (Fao.org). In fact, they are protected by law in many places, not for the sake of the turtles, but for the many humans who would lose their livelihood should they go extinct.
Once again, Playa Ostional in Costa Rica, sight of the infamous arribadas, provides a living example of the importance of sea turtles. The local economy relies heavily on the harvest of eggs from these arribadas, so much so that hunting sea turtle eggs is legal during certain controlled harvests (Perrine, 88). It is reasoned that, since many of the first eggs laid are doomed to be uprooted by the waves of turtles nesting on the beaches, the hueveros ought to be allowed to collect them for use in cooking and trade (Witherington, 57). By doing so, the government believes the local human populations will feel more invested in the welfare of the turtles, and so will take greater measures
to protect them (Perrine, 89). A program at Playa Ostional in Costa Rica, the sight of the infamous arribadas that are so important to replenishing the beaches, even promotes controlled turtle egg harvests to encourage concern for turtle populations, the theory being that when the human population is invested in the wellbeing of the sea turtles, it will do its best to protect them (Perrine, 89). This law is controversial, however, as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) still bans the trade of any species of sea turtle (Fao.org)
Unfortunately, despite the prevalence of sea turtles in the past, their numbers have dwindled significantly over the years, leaving six sea turtle species endangered and all listed as critically endangered by CITES (Fao.org). Many recent changes have contributed to the decrease in sea turtle numbers, most particularly the actions of humans. Currently, humans and sea turtles are competing for use of beaches everywhere. Beachside housing disrupts sea turtle nesting, as night lights can disorient hatchlings. When turtles first emerge
from their nests, they must reach the sea as quickly as possible to avoid being eaten or drying out. Emerging at night, they immediately rely on the light of the moon reflecting off the water to lead them to the sea. Unfortunately, they are often misled by porch lights, which lead them in the opposite direction of the water. (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission). As a result, many hatchlings get disoriented and die before ever reaching the water. Beachside trash also contributes to turtle deaths each year, as many turtles
accidentally ingest and choke on nonbiodegradable materials. Turtles are especially prone to ingesting plastic bags, as they resemble one of the turtles’ favorite foods, jellyfish (Perrine, 91). Other threats include costal armoring such as sea walls and bulkheads, and beach furniture (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission). These are all in addition to the many biological threats posed to sea turtles, such as disease and cold stun, which occurs when the water in a turtle’s natural habitat experiences an unusually cold spell, freezing the turtles to death.
One of the biggest threats to the sea turtle population comes not from the general population and beach goers, but from fishers. On one hand, there are the hueveros and poachers who have relied on the sea turtles for years, but whose tendency to overhunt the population has made the practice illegal (Fao.org). However, even those fishers not trying to catch turtles have a negative impact on their populations. Huge nets and powerful boats have revolutionized the fishing industry, making it possible for fishers to harvest large amounts of shrimp and other seafood efficiently. However, these nets have proven too good at harvesting, as they catch not only the desired game, but sea turtles and other large sea creatures as well. Fishing nets are especially deadly to sea turtles, as they can entangle turtles and trap them underwater, where they drown. In India alone, fishing nets have killed as many as 75,000 ridley sea turtles (Perrine, 88). Worldwide, the
estimated number of fatalities among loggerheads and leatherbacks combined was 250,000 in 2000 (Fao.org).
To combat this problem, Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) have been developed and their use enforced on shrimp fishing vessels. The device is simply a door at the bottom of the net which, when hit by a heavy animal such as a sea turtle or a dolphin, will open, allowing the animal to escape (Perrine, 88). The device is designed to allow for minimal shrimp loss, as this would be devastating to the fishers. The loss is less than ten percent, a reasonably small amount.
Not surprisingly, however, fishers are not enthusiastic about using the TEDs. Although their use is mandated by law, many fishers refuse to use them, or else sabotage them once out at sea so that they will not open. In the Gulf of Mexico, the Coast Guard estimated that compliance with TED regulations was as low as 81% in some regions, while others reached 91% (Griffin and Oliver, 45). They are unwilling to lose even a small percentage of their harvest which, multiplied over the course of the season, does add up to a profit loss. Beyond this though, there is widespread belief in the fishing community that the TEDs result in the loss of well over ten percent of the overall shrimp
harvest. Studies have been conducted to combat this urban legend, including one by Zinnia Mukherjee and Kathleen Segerson, who found that the actual amount of shrimp lost is around two percent, much less than the twenty percent commonly believed by fishermen (174, 188). Similarly, a report by Wade L. Griffin, a professor of Agricultural Economics Department and Chris Oliver of the North Pacific Fishery Management Council, conducted for the Federal MARFIN project, found that the average loss for shrimp fishers on account of TEDs was 16.2 million dollars in one year. This may seem like quite the number, but it accounts for a loss of only 5.3% of the overall shrimp harvest, much less than 10% (45). In fact, when taking average income into account, the rent only declined by 4.5 million dollars, including the initial cost of the TEDs, which can be quite expensive. This number would therefore be less in years when a new TED did not have to be purchased (Griffin and Oliver, 45).
Regardless of these reports, some legislators and government officials are still unwilling to enforce the use of life-saving TEDs because of even a slight inconvenience to humans. Take the quote from Edwin W. Edwards, governor of Louisiana in 1987: “If it comes to a question of whether its shrimpers or turtles—bye-bye turtles” (Perrine, I). The theory is that humans ought to always be valued above sea turtles, and so the livelihood of the shrimpers out to trump the lives of the turtles. However, such a sweeping judgment fails to consider the many fishers and human beings who rely on the sea turtles for their livelihood, such as the hueveros in Costa Rica. Yes, the use of TEDs does slightly decrease the income of the shrimpers, but should the turtles go extinct, the business of the hueveros would be wiped out completely.
Of course, most conservation measures that would eliminate threats to sea turtles are not so controversial. They’d even be considered
downright courteous by many everyday citizens. Since artificial lighting can disorient sea turtle hatchlings, simply turning off the porch light at night can increase their chances of making it to the sea. As lounge chairs and other beach furniture can hinder sea turtles as they crawl up the beach to nest, furniture should be removed from the beach when not in use (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Committee). This will not only help the turtles, but will save the furniture from rust and decay. Ecofriendly practices such as using organic,
biodegradable cleaning products and reducing plastic use also help (Conserveturtles.org). Even something as simple as picking up a stray wrapper, a habit that benefits not only the wildlife but the people who like to enjoy clean, litter-free beaches, can save a turtle’s life, as ingestion of these non-biodegradable substances can result in choking (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission).
By throwing trash away and removing unused furniture, citizens will not only keep the beaches clean for others, but will protect the species whose nesting habits replenish the beaches with nutrients. These nutrients then contribute to the beach ecosystem, supporting vegetation to make the beaches even healthier and more beautiful. And, of course, if you are lucky enough to encounter a sea turtle, make sure to stay back both for your safety and that of the turtle (nesting mothers can be dangerous if provoked) and don’t shine any lights nearby, as this can disturb the nesting process (Conserveturtles.org).
The mantra of “save the sea turtles” has become somewhat of a joke to many people. They’re an obscure, if intriguing, species, high maintenance and a threat to the fishing industry. As the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations points out, sea turtles’
life styles take them from the sea beds to the open ocean to the beaches, bringing them into potentially life-threatening contact with all manner of human activity. However, by examining their role in the environment, we see that they are far from obsolete. Sea turtles once filled the oceans, grazing on sea grass and replenishing the beaches with their leftover eggs. Humans hunted them for their meat, eggs, and beautiful shells (Perrine, 87). Their loss may have severe ecological repercussions. Their survival, however, would greatly benefit the humans who rely on them for so much. If humans can find a way to conserve the turtles, returning their numbers to their pre-colonial levels, then turtles could once again be hunted as a major economical commodity. Products made from turtles, such as leatherwork or turtle shell ornaments, would again be legal on the market, stimulating the economies that have relied on them in the past. The more they are viewed as a valuable part of the economy, the more human societies rely on them, the more society will be motivated to protect them for
future generations, and so will never again hunt them to the point of extinction.
Of course, to the many people—students, retirees, men, women, and children—who dedicate their time to saving these creatures, it is not a matter of economical or ecological gain. They do it because they want to see these fascinating animals preserved. From evironmental groups, to government legislators, to agricultural and fishing organizations worldwide, we all have a stake in the survival of the sea turtles. In the words of Archie Carr, grandfather of the sea turtle conservation movement, when it comes to sea turtles “[t]here is no civilized way to escape the obligation to save them.” (Perrine, I)
Even without fully understanding the impact of sea turtle species on their marine environment, the sheer number of turtles estimated to
have once inhabited the oceans of North and South America, and the proportionally few surviving today, is cause for concern. According to ecologist Jeremy Jackson, as many as 660 million green sea turtles lived in the Caribbean in the past. As the quote from Columbus shows, sea turtles were once a thriving species in New World waters, and their importance to the marine ecosystem was comparable to the wildebeest populations in east Africa (Perrine, 87).
It’s clear that sea turtles fill an ecological niche, but what about their importance to human society and culture? Writer and researcher James R. Spotlia has speculated, like many sea turtle workers, that the sea turtles had a profound effect on the Mayan civilization. They hunted them for their shells, which they used as bowls and shields. Beyond economic concerns, however, the Mayans revered the sea turtles and replicated their likeness in art, sculpture, and hieroglyphs (67). Could the animals that made such a lasting impression in
the past be important enough to save for the future? Looking to the present, we can see through the work of the hueveros—egg hunters—in Costa Rica that sea turtle eggs are still important to human culture. They have long been seen as a source of food and medicine, not to mention a valuable trade commodity, and can be used for leather products, decorations, even oils (Fao.org). In fact, they are protected by law in many places, not for the sake of the turtles, but for the many humans who would lose their livelihood should they go extinct.
Once again, Playa Ostional in Costa Rica, sight of the infamous arribadas, provides a living example of the importance of sea turtles. The local economy relies heavily on the harvest of eggs from these arribadas, so much so that hunting sea turtle eggs is legal during certain controlled harvests (Perrine, 88). It is reasoned that, since many of the first eggs laid are doomed to be uprooted by the waves of turtles nesting on the beaches, the hueveros ought to be allowed to collect them for use in cooking and trade (Witherington, 57). By doing so, the government believes the local human populations will feel more invested in the welfare of the turtles, and so will take greater measures
to protect them (Perrine, 89). A program at Playa Ostional in Costa Rica, the sight of the infamous arribadas that are so important to replenishing the beaches, even promotes controlled turtle egg harvests to encourage concern for turtle populations, the theory being that when the human population is invested in the wellbeing of the sea turtles, it will do its best to protect them (Perrine, 89). This law is controversial, however, as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) still bans the trade of any species of sea turtle (Fao.org)
Unfortunately, despite the prevalence of sea turtles in the past, their numbers have dwindled significantly over the years, leaving six sea turtle species endangered and all listed as critically endangered by CITES (Fao.org). Many recent changes have contributed to the decrease in sea turtle numbers, most particularly the actions of humans. Currently, humans and sea turtles are competing for use of beaches everywhere. Beachside housing disrupts sea turtle nesting, as night lights can disorient hatchlings. When turtles first emerge
from their nests, they must reach the sea as quickly as possible to avoid being eaten or drying out. Emerging at night, they immediately rely on the light of the moon reflecting off the water to lead them to the sea. Unfortunately, they are often misled by porch lights, which lead them in the opposite direction of the water. (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission). As a result, many hatchlings get disoriented and die before ever reaching the water. Beachside trash also contributes to turtle deaths each year, as many turtles
accidentally ingest and choke on nonbiodegradable materials. Turtles are especially prone to ingesting plastic bags, as they resemble one of the turtles’ favorite foods, jellyfish (Perrine, 91). Other threats include costal armoring such as sea walls and bulkheads, and beach furniture (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission). These are all in addition to the many biological threats posed to sea turtles, such as disease and cold stun, which occurs when the water in a turtle’s natural habitat experiences an unusually cold spell, freezing the turtles to death.
One of the biggest threats to the sea turtle population comes not from the general population and beach goers, but from fishers. On one hand, there are the hueveros and poachers who have relied on the sea turtles for years, but whose tendency to overhunt the population has made the practice illegal (Fao.org). However, even those fishers not trying to catch turtles have a negative impact on their populations. Huge nets and powerful boats have revolutionized the fishing industry, making it possible for fishers to harvest large amounts of shrimp and other seafood efficiently. However, these nets have proven too good at harvesting, as they catch not only the desired game, but sea turtles and other large sea creatures as well. Fishing nets are especially deadly to sea turtles, as they can entangle turtles and trap them underwater, where they drown. In India alone, fishing nets have killed as many as 75,000 ridley sea turtles (Perrine, 88). Worldwide, the
estimated number of fatalities among loggerheads and leatherbacks combined was 250,000 in 2000 (Fao.org).
To combat this problem, Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) have been developed and their use enforced on shrimp fishing vessels. The device is simply a door at the bottom of the net which, when hit by a heavy animal such as a sea turtle or a dolphin, will open, allowing the animal to escape (Perrine, 88). The device is designed to allow for minimal shrimp loss, as this would be devastating to the fishers. The loss is less than ten percent, a reasonably small amount.
Not surprisingly, however, fishers are not enthusiastic about using the TEDs. Although their use is mandated by law, many fishers refuse to use them, or else sabotage them once out at sea so that they will not open. In the Gulf of Mexico, the Coast Guard estimated that compliance with TED regulations was as low as 81% in some regions, while others reached 91% (Griffin and Oliver, 45). They are unwilling to lose even a small percentage of their harvest which, multiplied over the course of the season, does add up to a profit loss. Beyond this though, there is widespread belief in the fishing community that the TEDs result in the loss of well over ten percent of the overall shrimp
harvest. Studies have been conducted to combat this urban legend, including one by Zinnia Mukherjee and Kathleen Segerson, who found that the actual amount of shrimp lost is around two percent, much less than the twenty percent commonly believed by fishermen (174, 188). Similarly, a report by Wade L. Griffin, a professor of Agricultural Economics Department and Chris Oliver of the North Pacific Fishery Management Council, conducted for the Federal MARFIN project, found that the average loss for shrimp fishers on account of TEDs was 16.2 million dollars in one year. This may seem like quite the number, but it accounts for a loss of only 5.3% of the overall shrimp harvest, much less than 10% (45). In fact, when taking average income into account, the rent only declined by 4.5 million dollars, including the initial cost of the TEDs, which can be quite expensive. This number would therefore be less in years when a new TED did not have to be purchased (Griffin and Oliver, 45).
Regardless of these reports, some legislators and government officials are still unwilling to enforce the use of life-saving TEDs because of even a slight inconvenience to humans. Take the quote from Edwin W. Edwards, governor of Louisiana in 1987: “If it comes to a question of whether its shrimpers or turtles—bye-bye turtles” (Perrine, I). The theory is that humans ought to always be valued above sea turtles, and so the livelihood of the shrimpers out to trump the lives of the turtles. However, such a sweeping judgment fails to consider the many fishers and human beings who rely on the sea turtles for their livelihood, such as the hueveros in Costa Rica. Yes, the use of TEDs does slightly decrease the income of the shrimpers, but should the turtles go extinct, the business of the hueveros would be wiped out completely.
Of course, most conservation measures that would eliminate threats to sea turtles are not so controversial. They’d even be considered
downright courteous by many everyday citizens. Since artificial lighting can disorient sea turtle hatchlings, simply turning off the porch light at night can increase their chances of making it to the sea. As lounge chairs and other beach furniture can hinder sea turtles as they crawl up the beach to nest, furniture should be removed from the beach when not in use (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Committee). This will not only help the turtles, but will save the furniture from rust and decay. Ecofriendly practices such as using organic,
biodegradable cleaning products and reducing plastic use also help (Conserveturtles.org). Even something as simple as picking up a stray wrapper, a habit that benefits not only the wildlife but the people who like to enjoy clean, litter-free beaches, can save a turtle’s life, as ingestion of these non-biodegradable substances can result in choking (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission).
By throwing trash away and removing unused furniture, citizens will not only keep the beaches clean for others, but will protect the species whose nesting habits replenish the beaches with nutrients. These nutrients then contribute to the beach ecosystem, supporting vegetation to make the beaches even healthier and more beautiful. And, of course, if you are lucky enough to encounter a sea turtle, make sure to stay back both for your safety and that of the turtle (nesting mothers can be dangerous if provoked) and don’t shine any lights nearby, as this can disturb the nesting process (Conserveturtles.org).
The mantra of “save the sea turtles” has become somewhat of a joke to many people. They’re an obscure, if intriguing, species, high maintenance and a threat to the fishing industry. As the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations points out, sea turtles’
life styles take them from the sea beds to the open ocean to the beaches, bringing them into potentially life-threatening contact with all manner of human activity. However, by examining their role in the environment, we see that they are far from obsolete. Sea turtles once filled the oceans, grazing on sea grass and replenishing the beaches with their leftover eggs. Humans hunted them for their meat, eggs, and beautiful shells (Perrine, 87). Their loss may have severe ecological repercussions. Their survival, however, would greatly benefit the humans who rely on them for so much. If humans can find a way to conserve the turtles, returning their numbers to their pre-colonial levels, then turtles could once again be hunted as a major economical commodity. Products made from turtles, such as leatherwork or turtle shell ornaments, would again be legal on the market, stimulating the economies that have relied on them in the past. The more they are viewed as a valuable part of the economy, the more human societies rely on them, the more society will be motivated to protect them for
future generations, and so will never again hunt them to the point of extinction.
Of course, to the many people—students, retirees, men, women, and children—who dedicate their time to saving these creatures, it is not a matter of economical or ecological gain. They do it because they want to see these fascinating animals preserved. From evironmental groups, to government legislators, to agricultural and fishing organizations worldwide, we all have a stake in the survival of the sea turtles. In the words of Archie Carr, grandfather of the sea turtle conservation movement, when it comes to sea turtles “[t]here is no civilized way to escape the obligation to save them.” (Perrine, I)
Works Cited
Fisheries and Aquaculture department. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2013. Fao.org. Web. Accessed 8 April
2013. Link: Fao.org
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. “Marine Turtle Conservation Guidelines.” 2007. Myfwc.com. Web. 15 Mar 2013. Link:
http://www.myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/managed/sea-turtles/protection/
John D. Pantis, et al. "Assessing The Relative Importance Of Conservation Measures Applied On Sea Turtles: Comparison Of Measures
Focusing On Nesting Success And Hatching Recruitment Success." Amphibia-Reptilia 30.2 (2009): 221-231. Academic Search
Complete. Web. Accessed 11 Mar. 2013.
Mukherjee, Zinnia, and Kathleen Segerson. "Turtle Excluder Device Regulation And Shrimp Harvest: The Role Of Behavioral And Market
Responses." Marine Resource Economics 26.3 (2011): 173-189. Academic Search Complete. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.
Perrine, Doug. Sea Turtles of the World. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2003. Print.
Rocheleau, Rebekah. "Loggerhead Sea Turtle." August 2012. Photo.
Sea Turtle Conservancy. “Why Care about Sea Turtles?” Sea Turtle Conservancy. Conserveturtles.org. 2001. Web. 12 Mar 2013.
Link: http://www.conserveturtles.org/seaturtleinformation.php?page=whycareaboutseaturtles
Spotilia, James R. Sea Turtles: A Complete Guide to their Biology, Behavior, and Conservation. The John Hopkins University Press. October
26 2004.
“Turtle Excluder Device (TED).” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Fao.org. July 2002. Web. Accessed 4 April 2013.
Link: http://www.fao.org/fishery/equipment/ted/en
Witherington, Blair. Sea Turtles: An Extraordinary Natural History of Some Uncommon Turtles. St. Paul, MN: Voyageur Press, 2006. Print.
Fisheries and Aquaculture department. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2013. Fao.org. Web. Accessed 8 April
2013. Link: Fao.org
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. “Marine Turtle Conservation Guidelines.” 2007. Myfwc.com. Web. 15 Mar 2013. Link:
http://www.myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/managed/sea-turtles/protection/
John D. Pantis, et al. "Assessing The Relative Importance Of Conservation Measures Applied On Sea Turtles: Comparison Of Measures
Focusing On Nesting Success And Hatching Recruitment Success." Amphibia-Reptilia 30.2 (2009): 221-231. Academic Search
Complete. Web. Accessed 11 Mar. 2013.
Mukherjee, Zinnia, and Kathleen Segerson. "Turtle Excluder Device Regulation And Shrimp Harvest: The Role Of Behavioral And Market
Responses." Marine Resource Economics 26.3 (2011): 173-189. Academic Search Complete. Web. 12 Mar. 2013.
Perrine, Doug. Sea Turtles of the World. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2003. Print.
Rocheleau, Rebekah. "Loggerhead Sea Turtle." August 2012. Photo.
Sea Turtle Conservancy. “Why Care about Sea Turtles?” Sea Turtle Conservancy. Conserveturtles.org. 2001. Web. 12 Mar 2013.
Link: http://www.conserveturtles.org/seaturtleinformation.php?page=whycareaboutseaturtles
Spotilia, James R. Sea Turtles: A Complete Guide to their Biology, Behavior, and Conservation. The John Hopkins University Press. October
26 2004.
“Turtle Excluder Device (TED).” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Fao.org. July 2002. Web. Accessed 4 April 2013.
Link: http://www.fao.org/fishery/equipment/ted/en
Witherington, Blair. Sea Turtles: An Extraordinary Natural History of Some Uncommon Turtles. St. Paul, MN: Voyageur Press, 2006. Print.